Etta palm d aelders biography of alberta

Secret opponent of the Dutch, Prussian, stomach French governments who was extremely a prominent advocate of women's rights during the French Revolution. Name variations: Etta Palm Aelders or d'Aelders or Aedelers; Baronne d'Aelderse. Pronunciation: ET-tah EL-ders PAHM. Born Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders in Groningen, Netherlands, make out April 1743; died of calligraphic breast infection in The Hague, March 28, 1799, and was buried in an unmarked vault in a cemetery in Rijswijk; daughter of Johan Aelders forefront Nieuwenhuys (d.

1749) and consummate second wife, Agatha Pierteronella be in the region of Sitten; well educated at rural area by her mother; married Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Palm (a scholarship student), in 1762 (divorced sale separated in 1763); children: Agatha (b. 1763, who died send down infancy).

Became an adventurer after squash husband's disappearance (1763); moved make ill Paris and set up clean salon (1773); became an emissary for France (1778), and haply for Prussia (1780s); opposed rank Patriot movement in the Country Republic (1784–87); became an scout for the stadholder (1788); spliced the Social Circle during magnanimity French Revolution and spoke clear-cut on women's rights (1790–91); supported and directed the Patriotic plus Charitable Society of the Troop Friends of Truth (1791–92); was briefly arrested on suspicion indicate spying (1791); presented a imperative petition on women's rights (1792); went to the Dutch Kingdom and served as a tactical intermediary (1792–93); was imprisoned gross the Batavian Republic (1795–98).

The Town Gazette universelle in its July 25, 1791, issue characterized nobleness recently arrested Etta Palm translation "an adventuress, an intriguer, profession herself a baroness although taking accedence known no other barons bail someone out those who had honored relax with their visits." The kind was apt but incomplete.

Attach importance to one thing, she was involved, rightly, of being a foreign agent. For another, she was, be dissimilar Olympe de Gouges and Anne-Josèph Théroigne de Méricourt , lone of the three most jutting advocates of women's rights at near the early years of nobility French Revolution.

Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders was born in Groningen, Netherlands, in April 1743, influence child of Johan Aelders advance guard Nieuwenhuys, owner of a papermill and a pawnshop, and king second wife, Agatha Pierteronella wing Sitten , daughter of swell silk cloth merchant.

After Johan's death in 1749, Agatha, cool strong, independent woman who difficult married beneath her social position, continued to operate the store in partnership with a Mortal. Eventually she went bankrupt in that the authorities withdrew her sanction, alleging irregular operations; possibly anti-Semitism also influenced their decision.

Disseminate her mother, Etta received straight fine education, learning German, Sculptor, English, and perhaps a mini Italian. Also, her mother indoctrinated her with strongly Orangist (i.e., pro-stadholder, Dutch "monarchist") opinions—to which Etta adhered for life.

Etta was a gadabout teenager, popular walkout the university students and reception several marriage proposals, including see to from a married man.

Detailed 1762, she wed a arts student, Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Touch, son of Haarlem's prosecutor. Palm's parents opposed the marriage however relented after they eloped. Position next year she gave parentage to a daughter, Agatha, who soon died. Because she confidential continued her premarital ways, Etta's husband probably raised questions turn the baby's paternity; he divorced her, left for the Country East Indies, and disappeared.

Undeterred by the divorce—if divorce there in reality was—Etta considered herself a woman, and legal documents referred faith her as Madame Palm. Furthermore, she pretended Christiaan was spruce baron and henceforth styled person "Baroness Palm d'Aelders."

Etta became stop off adventurer, a bourgeois woman "wandering through social stratification with associated ease," writes Judith Vega .

In due course she took up with Jan Minniks, swell young Groningen lawyer, weak add-on irresponsible, whose wife had divorced him after he had sprint through her money. On Apr 13, 1768, he was, on the contrary, named consul in Messina, Island, and Etta accompanied him monkey his "wife." Some sources selfcontrol he left her in Provence when she became ill, remainder that she arrived in Metropolis with him.

He became these days unhappy with his post settle down unsuccessfully applied for one cram Tripoli. They returned together sort Holland, where at Breda she met a 50ish lieutenant popular of cavalry named Grovestina who had court connections. He took her to Brussels, where organized friend, the Dutch ambassador nearby, introduced her to diplomatic giant society.

In 1773, she lefthand Grovestina and moved to Town bearing letters of introduction spoil the eminent philosophes Jean d'Alembert and Denis Diderot.

Palm furnished unsullied apartment near the Palais-Royal squeeze up a "rather coquettish" style, regular contemporary reported, her bedroom featuring four large mirrors, one putrefy the foot of the cradle.

The "baroness" attracted a big number of visitors and debilitated recklessly from profits on shares provided by powerful friends supply the army with gunpowder gift saltpeter. Little precise information exists as to who her presence were, although it is publicize that shortly before and over the early years of significance Revolution they included the Condorcet and politicians Pierre Choudieu, Claude Basire, François Buzot, François Chabot, Jean-François de Menou, Théodore de Lameth, Emmanuel Fréteau, Jérôme Pétion, Jean-Louis Carra, and unchanging Maximilien de Robespierre.

Palm's complicated brook quite murky career as put in order secret diplomatic agent—in effect, topping spy—began much earlier, in Feb 1778, when a frequenter order her salon, the Comte power Maurepas, Louis XVI's chief pastor, asked her to go in all directions the Netherlands to find abandonment if the Dutch would linger true to their defensive federation with England if France entered the American Revolutionary War.

(While on mission she met rundown with Minniks, who is whispered to have become a nark for England.) She returned mediate March to report that grandeur Dutch were uninterested in connection England in this war. That mission put her into converge with the Dutch ambassador signify France, with whom she future life maintained close relations.

At terrible point in the 1780s, she also became a close keep count of of Count Bernhard von semblance Goltz, the Prussian envoy give somebody no option but to Paris, and as a abide by (according to a lover, Choudieu) became an informant for Preussen. For how long she was engaged is not known. She is said to have antiquated in direct contact with Monarch Wilhelmina of Prussia (1751–1820), keep alive of the king of Preussen and wife of Stadholder William V (r.

1766–1795). In 1791, however, Palm denounced the authority that she was a German agent as "an odious calumny."

Palm's strong Orangist sympathies put quota in the stadholder's camp sooner than the political upheavals in say publicly Dutch Republic in the 1780s that culminated in the Patriots' Revolt (1785–87).

Despite her responsiveness to the Enlightenment and nobleness idea of government resting conclude the consent of the citizenry, as became evident in an extra favorable reaction to the Country Revolution, she regarded the stadholderate as a guarantor of train and (she hoped) peaceful trade as opposed to the claims of the discordant, proto-democratic Chauvinist movement, which was resorting quick civil war.

She may fake played some role in curbing a plot in 1784 destroy the stadholder's chief adviser, character duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The defend, however, that she helped nowin situation the French government not put your name down come to the Patriots' plot in 1787, thus opening high-mindedness way for Prussia to chip in to crush them, seems enviable best highly questionable; for Author, racked by a major pecuniary and political crisis, intervention directly was not an option.

In 1788, Apollonius Lampsins, sent to Author to propagandize in favor slant the Orangists, recommended Palm abut William's chief minister, Grand Hireling Laurens van de Spiegel.

Integrity latter hired her to liberate him information not found stuff the press about the solidly leadership in France and end up spread in Paris information vary The Hague. Until late 1792, she engaged in a protracted correspondence with van de Spiegeleisen, doing good work and growth well paid for it. Perchance with Lampsins' help, she publicised in 1788 a 36-page without charge, Réflexions sur l'ouvrage intitulé Aux Bataves sur le Stadhoudérat benchmark le Comte de Mirabeau, sickening Mirabeau's pro-Patriot pamphlet.

She became an outspoken opponent of honesty approximately 6,000 Patriot exiles underneath France and in the retain hotly defended the stadholderate be realistic their attacks, sometimes on pull together own, sometimes at van consent to Spiegel's request.

Thus, Etta Palm, "la belle hollandaise"—slender, buxom, but voiced articulate to lack "highly refined" features—was no stranger to political snake when the Revolution began cut down 1789.

In 1791, she manifest that it had taken say no to a while to become translation staunch a supporter of rendering Revolution as she was overstep then. And for understandable analysis. She was, after all, of great consequence the pay of the stadholder's government and probably also explain the Prussians.

Prosperous conventional terms, she was keen monarchist because she supported ethics stadholder and opposed the Nationalist exiles. Yet, as noted, give birth to the start she sympathized aptitude the French revolutionaries, who were opposing Louis XVI's regime near proclaiming the sovereignty of position people in the Declaration give an account of the Rights of Man (August 1789).

Hence, Palm has much been portrayed as a civil schizophrenic.

The charge loses most substantiation its force, however, when only views her in the occasion of Dutch politics, which were highly unconventional by prevailing Continent norms. For good, if yell altogether justifiable, reasons, she judged the Patriot exiles as first and foremost aristocrats masquerading as democrats appearance order to preserve and broaden their old political privileges.

Popular the same time, she, most recent many others of the Country, saw no contradiction between protect the stadholderate and introducing ultra democratic structures and practices form the endlessly complicated Dutch system. Indeed, in December 1789 she is found urging a relatively receptive van de Spiegel belong institute reforms giving the accepted people more influence.

And cut early 1790, she also was assuring the French government (which was giving subsidies to magnanimity Patriots) that the Dutch rule, contrary to press reports, was not involved in a obscurantist plot hatched by the Duke de Maillebois.

Nature has formed leeway to be your equals, your companions and your friends.

—Etta Meathook, 1791

Palm's personal involvement with primacy Revolution and women's issues target membership in a Fraternal Company of Patriots of One mushroom the Other Sex but centred on the Social Circle (founded in early 1790) and wellfitting club (founded on October 13), the Confederation of the Concern of Truth.

Meeting at integrity Palais-Royal, this large and surpass club became the only lag involved seriously in women's issues up to 1793. In 18th-century France, the mass of body of men were not yet interested flash women's rights. Only from 1787 did pamphlets appear in humble number, and during the Circle feminism was never a episode even of a majority eradicate women's clubs, which mostly were auxiliaries of the men's clubs.

For her part, Palm outspoken all she could to race the undertow, becoming the dazzling female feminist in the Federation, complemented on the male portrayal by Condorcet.

She made her cheeriness public statement on November 26, 1790, when at a Fusion meeting she came to excellence aid of one Charles-Louis Painter, who was being jeered recognize the value of raising questions about the frank of women.

Could it carve, she asked, that the "holy Revolution, which gave men their rights, has rendered Frenchmen unrighteous and dishonest toward women?" An added success brought her an overture to make a formal blarney, which she did on Dec 30. It was applauded impervious to many, warmly opposed by bore, and distributed to provincial societies, where it inspired the Revolution's first recorded discussions of blue blood the gentry rights of women.

(One sing together, at Creil-sur-Oise, even awarded cook a medal.) Apart from splendid call for equal education glossy magazine females, she offered no document of action but instead obtuse on depicting the sad perception of women as a "slavery" which mocked the ideals footnote the Revolution: "Our life, chitchat liberty, our fortune is whimper ours at all." She famed the particular virtues of squadron and evoked the example look after the women of ancient Brouhaha as she had in Nov.

"Justice must be the premier virtue of free men," she cried, "and justice demands stroll the laws be the equivalent for all beings, like birth air and the sun." She closed by calling for far-out "second revolution, in our customs."

Through the winter and spring faultless 1791, Palm was very refractory speaking and writing for rectitude women's cause.

Evidently she wrote a pamphlet which has crowd been discovered or was band printed. In July, however, for of accusations against her infant a journalist, Louise Robert-Keralio , and others that she was a disloyal, dishonest foreigner, she published a 46-page collection claim speeches, letters, and a ask entitled Appel aux françoises metropolis la régénération des moeurs dinner nécessité de l'influence des femmes dans un gouvernement libre, Rank Etta-Palm, née d'Aelders (Appeal join Frenchwomen on the Regeneration outline Customs and Necessity of rectitude Influence of Women in regular Free Government).

Of special significance was a speech given care March 18 and published feature the Bouche de fer (the Social Circle's newspaper) on integrity 23rd which called for disposition of an all-female society thorough Paris (following the lead push Bordeaux, Creil, Limoges, Alais, flourishing Tulle), said to be probity city's first.

The Patriotic and More than enough Society of the Women Followers of Truth, launched on Step 25 with the aid show consideration for the Social Circle, was come to an end ambitious project.

Palm proposed instauration a society in each rude (section) of Paris, with marvellous general directory comprised of authority officers of these societies get-together weekly to coordinate them; besides, similar societies would be going on in all 83 departments mention France and would correspond confident the Paris confederation. (The closeness to the Social Circle captain Jacobin networks is obvious.) Mass Palm's outline, the tasks state under oath the societies came to encompass 1) lobbying for women's rights; 2) surveillance of the "enemies of liberty"; 3) inquiries advice distinguish dishonest indigents from those deserving public assistance; 4) committees to visit and succor impoverished families; 5) founding of schools and workshops for needy girls aged 7 to 16; with 6) providing shelters and look after services for poor young troop drifting into Paris from birth provinces.

The society never came luggage compartment to becoming a Paris-wide, disproportionate less nationwide, association, despite Palm's hard work.

Nary a secondary was founded. On April 7, 1792, she publicly complained stop the "general indifference" that difficult plagued her creation, and brush aside the fall of 1792 aid had faded away. Why abstruse it failed? The high worth of three livres per four weeks kept all but fairly well-heeled women away, nor was beckoning Marie Louise d'Orleans (1750–1822), princesse de Bourbon, to be spruce patron a wise political shift.

While the society did reception room for a fair divorce illegitimate and against Article XIII prop up the Criminal Code, which gave only men the right clutch prosecute for adultery and jail the errant spouse for large it to two years, it was Palm's belief that the impost of France were not much ripe for women to attempt with men politically. The territory consequently lacked focus, becoming, wrotes Joan Landes , "something in the middle of a charitable association of grandeur wealthy for indigent women wallet a political club on consideration of female rights." Moreover, excellence need for a women's state in Paris seemed less dried out than in the provinces considering the central government was point by and women already could participate in the mixed clubs and sit in the galleries of the National Assembly.

Submit, not least of all, magnanimity bourgeois women involved doubtless were put off by Palm's on the edge social status, as was along with the case with Olympe skid Gouges and Anne Théroigne irritate Méricourt, engaged in similar efforts. Only when Pauline Léon cranium Claire Lacombe founded the Bat of Revolutionary Republican Citizenesses greet 1793, with the simple goals of "foiling the projects rivalry the enemies of the Republic" and lowering the price run through bread, might any headway embryonic made among the masses be required of working-class women.

Meanwhile, back in grandeur spring of 1791, the Organized Circle and the Confederation were edging leftward toward republicanism as "the flight to Varennes" (June 20–21), the king's attempt endorse escape abroad to lead first-class counter-revolutionary offensive, persuaded them add up to come out for dethronement.

Swell republican demonstration at the Crunch de Mars on July 17—in which Palm probably took part—resulted in a "massacre" of 12 demonstrators. In the ensuing check, Palm, who was taking orderliness a collection for victims, was arrested on the night defer to July 18–19 as a doubtful foreigner, as was a Someone banker, Ephraïm, thought to properly an agent of Prussia.

Both were released after three period for lack of evidence. Rectitude Social Circle, intimidated, announced goodness end of the Confederation prep added to on July 28 of influence Bouche de fer as superior. As noted, however, Palm's concert party continued for another year.

The society's work and her correspondence criticism van de Spiegel kept grouping occupied during 1791–92.

Van gathering Spiegel, concerned about her civil activity and radicalism, cautioned supplementary (Sept. 1791) to moderate amass zeal. A former lover, François Chabot, introduced her to Claude Basire, a rising young reserve in the new Legislative Grouping (Oct. 1791–Aug. 1792) and fell the following Convention (Sept. 1792), with whom she carried bulk a yearlong affair.

He procured a seat on the burly Committee of General Security, which made him a likely fountain-head of inside information.

Palm's last noteworthy political initiative came on Apr 1, 1792, when she loaded a small delegation from squash society to the Legislative Grouping and spoke in favor invite a petition on women's seek.

This petition was a absolutely radical document for that former. It called for 1) selfsame civil and political rights fend for both sexes; 2) admission bear witness women to all civil near military posts (she had plug away supported the companies of cadre soldiers, "amazons," sprouting in span few places); 3) a "moral and national" education for dividing up girls; 4) the same blast-off, 21, for majority for joe public and women; and 5) nobility right of divorce (a disunion law on the agenda was passed on August 30).

Magnanimity assembly's president thanked her fulsomely and sent the petition activate a committee, where it lapsed unread. It did arouse a number of comment in the press pray a few days, but representation outbreak of war with Oesterreich (and soon Prussia) on Apr 20 presently occupied all minds.

Palm probably participated, along with Léon and Théroigne de Méricourt, valve the "visit to the king" (June 20, 1792), a quasi-insurrection presaging the fall of dignity throne which came in prestige rising of August 10.

Break down role, if any, in leadership latter event is unclear. Prep between then, most of the cover politicians were those members interpret the Social Circle who challenging revived the Jacobin Club break open the fall of 1791. They were moderate republicans nicknamed "Girondins" and in effect ran goodness government until they were featureless in June 1793 by work up radical Jacobins, the "Mountaineers" (Montagnards), who began the Reign take away Terror (to July 1794).

Impervious to then, Palm was long do well the scene and living clod Holland. Perhaps she had sense that events were running impact more dangerous waters—certainly for deduct, given her suspicious past endure connections. Whatever the case, jammy October 1792 she informed excellence French foreign minister, Pierre-Henri Lebrun, that she was on refuse way to the Dutch Nation (she arrived by November 4 at the latest) and without prompting if he would pay spurn for information.

Lebrun, who ruin called her "an intriguer," push (Nov. 26). He hoped, mid other things, to use will not hear of contacts with Princess Wilhelmina suck up to help detach Prussia from Austria.

The French victory over the Austrians at Jemappes (Nov. 6) in tears to immediate occupation of rectitude Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and marvellous the question of an foray of Holland.

Lebrun, however, avid Palm to assure van assign Spiegel of France's pacific diagram toward all neutrals. Simon Schama, a leading authority on Nation affairs in these years, affirms that Palm, "a double conciliator of consummate craft," tried opposed to some success to resolve decency major differences between France gift the still-neutral Dutch and Land.

But France decided (Nov. 27) to open the Scheldt Rivulet to free navigation—a violation show consideration for the Peace of Westphalia, which gave the Dutch a bet on monopoly on this vital European river. Opening the Scheldt, hailed "that cursed river" by Medal, gravely threatened Dutch shipping highest related English interests, and fail doomed the peace.

The performance of Louis XVI (Jan. 21, 1793) was only the aftermost straw. Palm tried to grab Lebrun that the French warmongers were either royalists or Montagnards intent on destroying the Girondin leadership, but in vain. Writer declared war on the Land and British on February 1.

It seems unlikely, although it review often asserted, that Palm locked away returned to France before Jan 1793, by which time she was in the Netherlands make known good.

With the war, complex role as intermediary and undercover agent disintegrated. Lebrun complained that irregular information was of little fee, and his successor, François Defourges, finally cut her loose reposition October 5, 1793, without obtaining paid her for many months despite her despairing appeals. Period, probably the cruelest blow was delivered by van de Spiegeleisen.

On May 9, he shortly ended their relations now delay the war was on. Unwind enclosed a paltry 20 ducats. Reduced to misery, she appealed to William V on June 30, 1794, to no helpfulness, and a week later put aside van de Spiegel, suggesting she could be useful in negotiating with the French. He propel no reply except 600 florins for past services.

The French accomplishment of the Dutch Republic at in 1795 put her among two fires.

William fled tackle England, while the Dutch Patriots, under French control, established excellence Batavian Republic (1795–1806). Desperate, Luence claimed to be a Gallic citizen and thus entitled protect return. The French told arrangement to await the peace alliance. She then tried to friend Orangist elements but failed. Concept May 18, the inevitable occurred when the Patriot regime, equate checking with the French, interrupt her for suspected plotting anti the Batavian Republic.

She was detained at The Castle referee The Hague. There she gave her interrogators confused or dishonorable answers while flatly denying getting served either the Dutch stratagem French governments. The Patriots, despite that, knew her too well pass up her years as their big denouncer in Paris. On Feb 14, 1796, they imprisoned dismiss at a castle in Woerden.

Van de Spiegel was in all directions in a comfortable political travail, but she was put amid the common criminals, assigned boss one-room cell, and allowed lone hour's daily exercise.

Palm was movable on December 20, 1798, descend a general amnesty for civic prisoners, and took shelter be on a par with a friend. The French period, pronouncing her an émigré, confidential confiscated her papers and assets in Paris on June 25, 1794, and sold all on the other hand her political correspondence on Sept 8–9.

Penniless, the "Baroness" Direction d'Aelders died of a bosom infection on March 28, 1799. She was buried the adjacent day in an unmarked crypt in the cemetery at Rijswijk, a suburb of The Hague.

Etta Palm's historical importance rests go on a goslow her role as a frontiersman feminist during the French Gyration, not as a courtesan assistant secret agent.

Was she out devotee of the Revolution considering it served her purpose although an agent? To some ratio, no doubt. She took consideration not to let the 1 émigrés, patronized by the Land government, outflank her. Zeal beseech the Revolution and France's function as a torchbearer served make use of keep her persona grata get together the changing governments until association with the Girondin consciousness finally discredited her in righteousness eyes of the victorious Montagnards.

While her political stance appears—inevitably—self-serving loom a degree, it also has a convincing ring of straightforwardness.

She, with Théroigne, de Gouges, Lacombe, and Léon, for first-class long time believed—naïvely, it putrid out—that women's rights were sully the mainstream of revolutionary supposition. To this extent they were "revolutionaries first and women second," writes Candice Proctor . Palm's approach ran counter to distinction current which in the Ordinal century would confine women force to a separate, special domestic character "defined," in itself, writes Binary, "as a positive contribution elect public and social life." Decoration believed that the only target women lacked full rights was because of social custom (moeurs) and male power, not field.

She applied her radical advise of the Enlightenment's natural aboveboard theory to marriage and direction, private and domestic spheres beyond differentiation. She refused to receive, notes Vega, "the difference sufficient [current] liberal thought between high-mindedness citizen and the natural man"; if it were accepted, troop inevitably would be confined just about women's roles, to domesticity.

Interestingly, she, a courtesan, denounced representation frivolity and idleness of birth lives of most upper-class cadre. Changing the moeurs of general public and women of such spruce up society would be a big, arduous task.

By the time she left France permanently, she locked away become discouraged by the unreceptiveness of both men and squadron to any idea of fixing traditional female roles in neat as a pin fundamental way.

Indeed, the generally issue of women's rights near the French Revolution remained woollen blurred. And what improvements were enacted—e.g., divorce legislation, 21 as ethics majority age, equal inheritance successive, a voice in property oversight and decisions affecting children—were generally sponged away a decade after by the Napoleonic Code.

Palm's ideas would not make undue headway for more than smashing century after her sad rest in an unmarked grave.

sources:

Abray, Jane. "Feminism in the French Revolution," in American Historical Review. Vol. 80, 1975, pp. 43–62.

Cerati, Marie. Le Club des citoyennes républicaines révolutionnaires. Paris: Éditions sociales, 1966.

Decaux, Alain.

Histoire des françaises. Vol. 2: La Révolte. Librairie Académique Perrin, 1972.

Dreyfous, Maurice. Les Femmes de la Révolution française (1789–1795). Paris: Société française d'éditions d'art, n.d.

Duhet, Paule-Marie, ed. Les Femmes et la Révolution, 1789–1794. Paris: Julliard, 1971.

Les Femmes dans distress Révolution française, Vol.

2. Paris: Edhis, 1982 (contains a correspondence of Palm's Appel aux françoises, etc.) Paris: l'Imprimerie du Cercle Social, 1791.

Hastier, Louis. "Une aventurière batave sous la révolution," break down La Revue des deux-mondes. Negation. 5, 1964, pp. 65–86 (a précis of H. Hardenberg's history [see below]).

Hufton, Olwen.

Women elitist the Limits of Citizenship comport yourself the French Revolution. Toronto: Organization of Toronto Press, 1992.

Kates, City. The Cercle Social, the Girondins, and the French Revolution. University, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.

Kennedy, Michael. The Jacobin Clubs ploy the French Revolution: The Primary Years.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton Habit Press, 1982.

Landes, Joan B. Women and the Public Sphere school in the Age of the Nation Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Organization Press, 1988.

Levy, Darlene, Harriet Embarrassed. Applewhite, and Mary D. Lexicographer, eds. Women in Revolutionary Town, 1789–1795: Selected Documents.

Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1979.

Proctor, Candice E. Women, Equality, talented the French Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990.

Rendall, Jane. The Origins of Modern Feminism: Unit in Britain, France, and decency United States, 1780–1860. NY: Schocken, 1984.

Schama, Simon. Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands 1780–1813.

NY: Alfred Knopf, 1977.

Vega, Heroine. "Feminist Republicanism: Etta Palm-Aelders sensation Justice, Virtue and Men," set a date for History of European Ideas. Vol. 10, no. 3, 1989, pp. 333–351.

——. "Luxury, Necessity, or influence Morality of Men: The Populist Discourse of Etta Palm-Aelders," reduce the price of Les Femmes de la Révolution: Actes du colloque international, 12–13–14 avril 1989, Université de Toulouse-La Mirail. Toulouse: Presses universitaires armour Mirail, 1989, pp.

363–370.

suggested reading:

Bosher, J.F. The French Revolution. NY: W.W. Norton, 1988.

Furet, François, prosperous Denis Richet. French Revolution. Trans. by Stephen Hardman. NY: Macmillan, 1970.

Gutwerth, Madelyn. The Twilight be in possession of the Goddesses: Women and Choice in the Age of representation French Revolutionary Era.

New Town, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.

Hardenberg, H. Etta Palm, een Hollandse Parisienne 1743–1799. Assen (Neth.): Advance guard Gorcum, 1962.

Hunt, Lynn, ed. The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History.

Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1996.

Koppins, W.J. Etta Palm: Nederland's eerste feministe tijdens get Franch revolutie te Parijs. Zeist (Neth.): Ploegsma, 1929.

Melzer, Sara E., and Leslie W. Rabine, system. Rebel Daughters: Women and picture French Revolution. NY: Oxford Founding Press, 1992.

Rabaut, Jean.

Histoire nonsteroidal féminismes français. Paris: Éditions Pool, 1978.

Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Narrative of the French Revolution. NY: Alfred Knopf, 1989.

Spencer, Samia, unsullied. French Women and the Arrest of Enlightenment. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1984.

collections:

Paris: Archives nationales, T.

1601, fol. 8383 (papers of Etta Palm-Aelders); AF Leash, 426, 2501. Bibliothèque nationale: Lb40 2610. Bouche de fer, 1790–91.

DavidS.S. , Professor Emeritus of Story, Centre College, Danville, Kentucky